City Research Online

Abstract

The ease of access to codeine and the related concerns of dependence, misuse and fatality are increasing in importance because codeine is an analgesic – it is chemically similar to morphine, although not as potent. The focus in the literature is on detection of higher Schedule drugs such as morphine and cocaine, rather than codeine. This work builds on the state-of-the-art previous work from some of the authors: a low-cost molecularly imprinted polymer-optical fibre sensor using a fluorophore, with a 30-min response time, that is selective to codeine amongst drugs such as cocaine and ketamine that it is normally paired with for recreational use. Applicable to both laboratory and in-the-field applications, it takes full advantage of the robustness of the optical fibre, being resistant to electromagnetic, chemical, and biological interference, marrying the two technologies to create a selective, durable and potentially inexpensive, yet sensitive technology. The sensor is also sensitive, presenting a 25 μM limit of detection. This investigation also reports the limitations of using fluorescence-based molecularly imprinted polymer-optical fibre sensors, in terms of their lifetime, which has not been documented in previous similar analyses. A non-imprinted polymer was also produced as a control template, showing no response to codeine, nor any of the drugs trialled as part of cross-sensitivity analysis.

Publication Type:	Article
Additional Information:	© 2025. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Publisher Keywords:	Chemical sensor, Optical fibre sensor, Molecularly imprinted polymer, Codeine, Codeine detection
Subjects:	Q Science > QD Chemistry T Technology > TK Electrical engineering. Electronics Nuclear engineering
Departments:	School of Science & Technology School of Science & Technology > Engineering
SWORD Depositor:	Symplectic Administrator

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